Image provided by the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.
Rape of Europa, 1559-62
Oil on canvas by Titian (1488-1576)
Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, Massachusetts
This painting by Titian was commissioned by Phillip II of Spain, and is one of several in a collection (Gallery). The collection of paintings are based on stories in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and this painting features a few animals (Museum). However, only the bull is a part of Ovid’s poem. In the story, Europa is stolen away by the king of the gods who disguises himself as a bull. Discussing the symbolism and intention of Titian to include a bull in this painting is not particularly advantageous, since the bull is a key aspect of the tale.
There are two animals that Titian chose to illustrate that were not included in Ovid’s poem. These are the sea creatures lurking in the water beneath Europa. It is unclear what the creatures are. The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum describes them as “a menacing, scaly sea monster bristling with spines” and a dolphin (Museum). Another source identifies the first creature as a fish, due to its scales (Wilkins 314). A. W. Eaton, in her article “Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa” calls the second creature “a monstrous fish” (Eaton 161). There is no consensus in the art history community regarding the species of the sea creatures.
It is curious why Titian painted these particular animals. Since this piece was commissioned by Phillip II of Spain, are the sea creatures significant to Spanish culture? Do they symbolize emotions pertaining to the story? Were they included as a natural part of the scene, as the bull charges through the water? Or is Titian showing off the impasto method of this painting?
To address the question of Spanish culture, the topic of bulls immediately arises. Bulls, specifically Osborne bulls, are heavily associated with the culture of Spain. At first glance, it seems Phillip II may have commissioned this painting due to its relation to bulls. However, according to The National Gallery in London, “The Spanish king had not specified which incidents from Ovid Titian should depict, so the artist chose the subjects himself” (Gallery). Perhaps Titian chose the rape of Europa specifically to relate to the culture of Phillip II. Whether Titian considered this connection is not especially important, since the bull must be a part of the story of Europa. Regarding the added animals, Spanish culture and symbolism does not speak to unidentified sea creatures or fish.
Beyond the general culture of Spain, there is the question of emotions being conveyed in Titian’s painting. In A. W. Eaton’s article, she argues that Titian unethically painted the elements to insinuate Europa’s consent in her rape. To begin her article, she describes an interpretation which she opposes. Through that interpretation, that Europa is terrified and not consenting, one can correlate the sea creatures to the emotions of the painting. The addition of more figures and animals reflects Europa’s terror; the sea creature specifically “emphasizes the danger and threat” of the depicted event (Eaton 161).
Eaton’s interpretation that “the painting eroticizes Europa’s rape” can also be used to speculate the meaning of the sea creatures (Eaton 162). If the creatures are assumed to be fish, their presence could support Eaton’s overall argument that Titian’s painting eroticizes rape. Fish, specifically the “ichthys” symbol adopted by Christianity, was a pagan symbol for fertility (Christianity Today). Since Eaton argues that the painting wrongly insinuates “her complicity and pleasure,” the symbolism of fish as indications of fertility may explain their inclusion (Eaton 162-163).
Moving away from interpretation and symbolism leads to the liberty of the artist. A part of Ovid’s poem is the charging of the bull through the water. Titian may have chosen to embellish the water with sea creatures as a natural part of the scenery. However, the creatures are not the same animal. They also play particular roles within the painting. The scalier fish looms viciously towards the bull, while the other fish acts as a chauffeur for a winged cupid. These sea creatures do not seem to act as a natural decoration, though it is possible that Titian added them because there is water.
Finally, the significance of the sea creatures could be explained by the impasto method, which are thick strokes of paint on the canvas. The scales of the fish are examples of impasto (Wilkins 314). Since Titian experimented more with impasto in his later paintings, it is possible he added the sea creatures to use this technique.
Ultimately, Titian likely had a reason besides his artistic liberty and technique to include these sea creatures. What is most probable is the natural use of fish in the water to mirror the emotions conveyed in the painting, while also experimenting with impasto.
Eaton, A. W. “Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa.” Hypatia, vol. 18, no. 4, Fall 2003, pp. 159–188. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2003.tb01417.x.
Wilkins, David G., et al. Art Past, Art Present. Prentice-Hall, 2001.
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